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King of Persia and Babylonia (335-330). Known in Classical historiography as Codomannus, his birth name was Artašata. The last king of the Achaemenid Empire, he likely achieved power through rebellion. He was defeated in several occasions by the Macedonians, he was killed by Bessus, one of his generals, at Choara in the north of modern Iran. He is likely meant in the Dynastic Prophecy.

King of Persia and Babylonia (337-336). His birth name was Arses. Although son of Artaxerxes III, he may have been installed on the throne by a courtier or a eunuch, Bagoas, and eventually killed by the same man a year later. He was overthrown by Codommannus.

King of Persia and Babylonia (358-338). Also known as Ochus and Umasu, Artaxerxes III was militarily active on Syria and reconquered Egypt. He is attested in the Chronicle of Artaxerxes III (ABC 9).

King of Persia and Babylonia (404-359). Also known as Mnemon, Artaxerxes II dealt with rebellions in Egypt, with the Satrap’s Revolt, and a civil war with his brother known as Cyrus the younger.

King of Persia and Babylonia (423-405). Nicknamed Nothus “bastard”, Darius II acceded to power shortly after the death of his father Artaxerxes I. According to Ctesias, his ascension to power was not peaceful and Darius II  had to subdue his half-brothers  Xerxes II and Sogdianus. However, neither of his opponents were ever recognized in Babylonian archival sources.

King of Persia and Babylonia (464-424). Son of Xerxes I, also known as Makrocheir/Longimanus (“longed armed”), Artaxerxes I successfully dealt with a rebellion in Egypt and reportedly signed the so-called Peace of Callias with Athens.

Babylonian rebel leader and pretender to the throne of Babylon. He rose in rebellion against Persian power in the second year of Xerxes. For a few months, he controlled the northern part of Babylon, and eventually defeated Bēl-šimanni’s rebellion in the southern part of Babylon. He is attested in thirteen economic texts.

Babylonian rebel leader and pretender to the throne of Babylonia (484). He rose in rebellion against Persian power in the second year of Xerxes I. For a brief period, he led a revolt in the southern part of Babylonia and was eventually defeated by another Babylonian rebel. He is attested in four economic texts.

Babylonian rebel leader and pretender to the throne of Babylonia. His proper name was Arakha, and he was probably of Aramean ascendency. He rose in rebellion against Persian power after the death of Cambyses II, and for a few months was recognized as king in the southern parts of Babylonia. He is attested in economic texts from May to November 521. He was defeated and captured by Darius I in Babylon.

Babylonian rebel leader and pretender to the throne of Babylonia. His proper name was Nidinti-Bēl and he was a zazzaku-official prior to 522. He rose in rebellion against Persian power after the death of Cambyses II, and for a few months was recognized as king in the northern part of Babylonia. He is attested in economic texts from that region between October and December 522. He was defeated by Darius I in battle near Sippar.